2023 08August 03.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "2ccabbdb-1b11-4986-9245-d73c02966955",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Agenda, week 5: Modules and packages\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Review of the challenge\n",
    "2. Q&A\n",
    "3. What are modules?\n",
    "4. Using `import` to retrieve data from modules\n",
    "5. Different variations on `import`\n",
    "6. How do we develop a module?\n",
    "7. What happens when a module is imported?\n",
    "8. Python's standard library\n",
    "9. Packages and PyPI -- finding and downloading them onto your computer\n",
    "10. Using `pip`\n",
    "11. What's next?\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "id": "14e84017-9562-4c8b-971e-cd04c92cd6d5",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# Challenge solution\n",
    "\n",
    "# Write your code below...\n",
    "\n",
    "def count_ips(filename):\n",
    "    output = {}\n",
    "    for one_line in open(filename):\n",
    "\n",
    "        # turn the line into a list of strings, separating on whitespace\n",
    "        # grab the first field, at index 0-- the IP address\n",
    "        ip_address = one_line.split()[0]  \n",
    "\n",
    "        # have I seen this IP address already?\n",
    "        # If so, then just add 1 to its value\n",
    "\n",
    "        if ip_address in output:     # \"in\" on a dict checks the keys\n",
    "            output[ip_address] += 1\n",
    "        else:                        # first time seeing this IP address\n",
    "            output[ip_address] = 1\n",
    "\n",
    "    return output\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "id": "e3034f4f-4e2e-4a6d-922e-7cc25870c03a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "counts = count_ips('mini-access-log.txt')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "id": "48c3a14c-3914-4c99-a9f0-4a84acd10795",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "67.218.116.165:\t2\n",
      "66.249.71.65:\t3\n",
      "65.55.106.183:\t2\n",
      "66.249.65.12:\t32\n",
      "65.55.106.131:\t2\n",
      "65.55.106.186:\t2\n",
      "74.52.245.146:\t2\n",
      "66.249.65.43:\t3\n",
      "65.55.207.25:\t2\n",
      "65.55.207.94:\t2\n",
      "65.55.207.71:\t1\n",
      "98.242.170.241:\t1\n",
      "66.249.65.38:\t100\n",
      "65.55.207.126:\t2\n",
      "82.34.9.20:\t2\n",
      "65.55.106.155:\t2\n",
      "65.55.207.77:\t2\n",
      "208.80.193.28:\t1\n",
      "89.248.172.58:\t22\n",
      "67.195.112.35:\t16\n",
      "65.55.207.50:\t3\n",
      "65.55.215.75:\t2\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# let's print this dict nicely!\n",
    "\n",
    "for key, value in counts.items():\n",
    "    print(f'{key}:\\t{value}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "id": "bf6e3cea-5ad3-4ae1-aecc-b7929fee78d5",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "67.218.116.165:\txx\n",
      "66.249.71.65:\txxx\n",
      "65.55.106.183:\txx\n",
      "66.249.65.12:\txxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx\n",
      "65.55.106.131:\txx\n",
      "65.55.106.186:\txx\n",
      "74.52.245.146:\txx\n",
      "66.249.65.43:\txxx\n",
      "65.55.207.25:\txx\n",
      "65.55.207.94:\txx\n",
      "65.55.207.71:\tx\n",
      "98.242.170.241:\tx\n",
      "66.249.65.38:\txxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx\n",
      "65.55.207.126:\txx\n",
      "82.34.9.20:\txx\n",
      "65.55.106.155:\txx\n",
      "65.55.207.77:\txx\n",
      "208.80.193.28:\tx\n",
      "89.248.172.58:\txxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx\n",
      "67.195.112.35:\txxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx\n",
      "65.55.207.50:\txxx\n",
      "65.55.215.75:\txx\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# what if your boss doesn't want to see numbers, but rather wants to see a histogram?\n",
    "\n",
    "for key, value in counts.items():\n",
    "    print(f'{key}:\\t{value * \"x\"}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "id": "8448eeff-f43c-4a8a-854d-69e9688eba36",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[0;32mIn[6], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;241;43m5\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43m \u001b[49m\u001b[38;5;241;43m+\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43m \u001b[49m\u001b[38;5;124;43m'\u001b[39;49m\u001b[38;5;124;43ma\u001b[39;49m\u001b[38;5;124;43m'\u001b[39;49m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "5 + 'a'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "id": "aabd12d9-165e-4a2e-9b12-8da2542b8392",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'aaaaa'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 7,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "5 * 'a'   # yes, this will work!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "d145483c-55c6-4c60-9d7e-7c877d64cc82",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Modules and packages\n",
    "\n",
    "We've spoken several times about \"Don't repeat yourself\" -- the \"DRY rule.\"  We've talked about it in two different contexts so far:\n",
    "\n",
    "1. If we have several lines in a row that are roughly the same, we should turn those into a loop.\n",
    "2. If we have several places in a program that are roughly the same, we should turn those into a function and then invoke the function in several places.\n",
    "3. If we have the same code in several different programs, we can use a library, and then reference the code in that library whenever we need it.\n",
    "\n",
    "In Python, our libraries are known as \"modules and packages.\" A module is a single file containing Python code, and a package is a directory containing one or more modules + other packages.  (You can think of them as files and folders.)\n",
    "\n",
    "1. If you want to do something that others have already done many times before, the odds are good that you can use someone else's library to do it.\n",
    "2. If you have implemented something (including at work) that might help others (or yourself) in future programs, then you can write a module and share it with others.\n",
    "\n",
    "The whole idea here is that you shouldn't be re-inventing the wheel. And if you use a module, then you don't have to worry about writing or maintaining that code. It's someone else's problem!\n",
    "\n",
    "Modules in Python do all of this -- they let us reuse code, and concentrate on the new, distinct problems we have to solve.\n",
    "\n",
    "But modules also do something else: They are also namespaces! In other words, if I'm working on a program that uses a variable `x` and you're working on a program that uses a variable `x`, then we don't want them to collide and interfere with one another. Modules separate each file, such that this cannot happen (or at least, not easily)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "553f2431-e82b-46e5-a83d-e859d111afc1",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "To use a module, you use the `import` statement.  A few things about `import`:\n",
    "\n",
    "- It is a statement, not a function. Don't use parentheses.\n",
    "- The argument you give to `import` is a word, not a string. It is the name of the module you want to load.  It is not a filename, either!\n",
    "- After you use `import`, you can use the module; anything defined in the module is available as an *attribute* on the module object, after a `.` ."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "id": "42d2689c-22d9-4d1a-bec3-66753928bd48",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "95"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 9,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import random       # this imports the \"random\" module that comes with Python\n",
    "\n",
    "# once we've done that, we can access an attribute x as random.x\n",
    "# attributes can be data, functions, or even classes (data types)\n",
    "\n",
    "random.randint(0, 100)   # here, we retrieve the \"randint\" function from the \"random\" module ... and run it!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "ac765a24-686d-48e1-b201-bbf3162a7d06",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Exercise: `glob`\n",
    "\n",
    "The `glob` module contains a function, also called `glob` (so yes, it's `glob.glob`) that takes a pattern of filenames, including `*` and `?`, and returns all of the filenames that match that pattern. It returns a list of strings, the filenames matching that pattern.\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Ask the user to enter a pattern. The pattern can be as simple as `'*.txt'`, which means that it'll return all of the text files in the current directory.\n",
    "2. Create an empty dict, `counts`. This dict will count the file extensions (suffixes). The keys will be strings and the values will be integers, counting how often each extension exists.\n",
    "3. Iterate over each filename, grabbing the extension (remember, you can use `str.split` and look at the end with an index of -1), and using it to count.\n",
    "4. Iterate over the dict, and print its values."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "f2eedd4f-ab17-4a92-9c92-1beaa0c8dce6",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "If you get an error saying \"SOMETHING is not callable,\" that means you wrote\n",
    "\n",
    "    SOMETHING()\n",
    "\n",
    "with parentheses after it, and SOMETHING is not a function and not a class.  I'm guessing that you wrote\n",
    "\n",
    "    import glob\n",
    "\n",
    "and you then wrote glob() rather than glob.glob().    "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "id": "37fd5fba-adcb-4513-8aac-bd842b95fa74",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdin",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Enter a pattern:  *\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "txt:\t6\n",
      "ipynb:\t5\n",
      "md:\t1\n",
      "md~:\t1\n",
      "zip:\t1\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import glob\n",
    "\n",
    "pattern = input('Enter a pattern: ').strip()\n",
    "\n",
    "counts = {}\n",
    "for one_filename in glob.glob(pattern):\n",
    "    # print(f'\\t{one_filename}')\n",
    "    extension = one_filename.split('.')[-1]   # grab the final part of the filename, after the last .\n",
    "\n",
    "    if extension in counts:\n",
    "        counts[extension] += 1\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        counts[extension] = 1\n",
    "\n",
    "for key, value in counts.items():\n",
    "    print(f'{key}:\\t{value}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "aeb1e7da-3e6b-480e-aa0d-7ff8a3213480",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# What does a module contain?\n",
    "\n",
    "- Variables\n",
    "- Functions\n",
    "- Classes (new data types)\n",
    "\n",
    "All of these are available as attributes, after the module name and a `.`.  If you aren't sure what attributes a module supports, you have a few options to learn. One of the easiest is the `dir` function; if you run it on a module, you'll see all of its attributes.\n",
    "\n",
    "Any name that starts and ends with double underscore (known as a \"dunder\" in the Python world), is \"magic\" and shouldn't really be touched unless you know what you're doing.\n",
    "\n",
    "Any name that starts with a single underscore is considered private/internal, and definitely shouldn't be used or relied upon, because it might change."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "id": "3cabfb24-664b-450a-958c-f6432eca04ab",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['__all__',\n",
       " '__builtins__',\n",
       " '__cached__',\n",
       " '__doc__',\n",
       " '__file__',\n",
       " '__loader__',\n",
       " '__name__',\n",
       " '__package__',\n",
       " '__spec__',\n",
       " '_dir_open_flags',\n",
       " '_glob0',\n",
       " '_glob1',\n",
       " '_glob2',\n",
       " '_iglob',\n",
       " '_isdir',\n",
       " '_ishidden',\n",
       " '_isrecursive',\n",
       " '_iterdir',\n",
       " '_join',\n",
       " '_lexists',\n",
       " '_listdir',\n",
       " '_rlistdir',\n",
       " 'contextlib',\n",
       " 'escape',\n",
       " 'fnmatch',\n",
       " 'glob',\n",
       " 'glob0',\n",
       " 'glob1',\n",
       " 'has_magic',\n",
       " 'iglob',\n",
       " 'itertools',\n",
       " 'magic_check',\n",
       " 'magic_check_bytes',\n",
       " 'os',\n",
       " 're',\n",
       " 'stat',\n",
       " 'sys']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 19,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir(glob)  # what does this module define?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "id": "6c0c7513-ef05-44a1-bbb2-71b1bcc80ccc",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<module 'glob' from '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python3.11/glob.py'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "glob  # print this"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "id": "b052c811-65a1-461d-84e3-c51c869165e2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<module 'random' from '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python3.11/random.py'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 21,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "random"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "id": "6137e370-ed66-4618-ae76-981217b35eef",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "7fe687f4-72e9-4607-8887-b523a3430489",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Where is the module loaded from? \n",
    "\n",
    "When you say `import MODNAME`, Python looks for a file called `MODNAME.py`. We can see this if we print the module object that we created.\n",
    "\n",
    "How does Python know to look in those directories?\n",
    "\n",
    "Basically, there's a special list of strings called `sys.path`. When you use the `import` statement, Python iterates over that list of strings, one at a time, looking for the module name you specified.  As soon as it finds the module you want, Python stops.\n",
    "\n",
    "This means that if more than one directory has your module's filename in it, the first one wins."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "id": "47fa71e2-24c2-4290-95e7-879d31c6cc3e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[\"/Users/reuven/Courses/Current/O'Reilly-2023-07July\",\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python311.zip',\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python3.11',\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python3.11/lib-dynload',\n",
       " '',\n",
       " '/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages',\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/pybind11/2.11.1/libexec/lib/python3.11/site-packages',\n",
       " '/usr/local/opt/python-tk@3.11/libexec']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import sys    \n",
    "sys.path"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "id": "63a881c1-41a3-4e08-9763-176d04f5c0b2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "ModuleNotFoundError",
     "evalue": "No module named 'asdfasdfsafdafa'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mModuleNotFoundError\u001b[0m                       Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[0;32mIn[23], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mimport\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;21;01masdfasdfsafdafa\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mModuleNotFoundError\u001b[0m: No module named 'asdfasdfsafdafa'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import asdfasdfsafdafa"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "id": "4502159a-bb83-400a-835b-2e26cc59d348",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Help on built-in function dir in module builtins:\n",
      "\n",
      "dir(...)\n",
      "    dir([object]) -> list of strings\n",
      "    \n",
      "    If called without an argument, return the names in the current scope.\n",
      "    Else, return an alphabetized list of names comprising (some of) the attributes\n",
      "    of the given object, and of attributes reachable from it.\n",
      "    If the object supplies a method named __dir__, it will be used; otherwise\n",
      "    the default dir() logic is used and returns:\n",
      "      for a module object: the module's attributes.\n",
      "      for a class object:  its attributes, and recursively the attributes\n",
      "        of its bases.\n",
      "      for any other object: its attributes, its class's attributes, and\n",
      "        recursively the attributes of its class's base classes.\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "help(dir)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "215c6e9a-a758-4323-85eb-f3bdcfc6ac83",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# What happens when you import a module?\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Python checks to see if the module was already loaded. If so, then it defines the variable, using the cached values.\n",
    "2. Otherwise, Python looks for the file you have specified in `import`, in each of the directories in `sys.path`.\n",
    "3. If it finds the file somewhere, then it loads the module and assigns it to the variable you named."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "37b35365-f52a-4bf4-ad65-ffeb51e0f416",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "My talk: What happens when you import a module?\n",
    "\n",
    "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CraNpITZwRo\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "33ac8160-5774-48c6-bd89-7b1060678250",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Exercise: Total file sizes\n",
    "\n",
    "1. We have now seen the `glob` module and the `glob.glob` function.\n",
    "2. There's also an `os` module, which works with your operating system and returns information about files, directories, and the like.  One of the useful functions in there is the `os.stat` function, which returns data about a file. So if you pass `os.stat` a filename, you'll get back an object containing information about when the file was created, modified, and also its size. The size is available as `st_size` on the returned object.\n",
    "3. Ask the user to enter a file pattern.\n",
    "4. Use `glob.glob` to find all of the files with this pattern.\n",
    "5. Print each of the files and their sizes (thanks to `os.stat`)\n",
    "6. Then print the total size, in bytes, of these files.\n",
    " "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "id": "3946b284-f2e9-42a8-afc9-6b9c3fbdb7db",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8164"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.stat('/etc/passwd').st_size"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 34,
   "id": "e959ce18-758f-4c97-9aba-5750db52f68d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdin",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Enter a pattern:  *.txt\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "mini-access-log.txt :36562\n",
      "nums.txt            :42\n",
      "shoe-data.txt       :1676\n",
      "linux-etc-passwd.txt:2683\n",
      "wcfile.txt          :165\n",
      "myfile.txt          :35\n",
      "----------------------------------------\n",
      "41163\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import glob\n",
    "import os\n",
    "\n",
    "pattern = input('Enter a pattern: ').strip()\n",
    "total = 0\n",
    "\n",
    "for one_filename in glob.glob(pattern):\n",
    "    size = os.stat(one_filename).st_size\n",
    "    total += size\n",
    "    \n",
    "    print(f'{one_filename:20}:{size}')   # show the filename on a field of 15 characters\n",
    "\n",
    "print('-' * 40)\n",
    "print(total)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "10f0120d-1117-4a18-92f9-c681c8ac26c8",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Next up\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Variations on `import`\n",
    "2. Developing a module"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "8203d9f1-6bd4-4b3f-b222-0616053de315",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# When we use `import`...\n",
    "\n",
    "`import MODNAME` means: (a) import the contents of the module, (b) based on that, create a module object, (c) assign a global variable to that module object.  \n",
    "\n",
    "Let's say that I'm going to use `random.randint` a lot in my program. Do I really want to say `random.randint` each time? No! I want to just say `randint`.  But I can't!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 35,
   "id": "2c50d06c-cb62-4dd4-a84c-6a5c2ce3dbbe",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "24"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 35,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Python finds the global variable random.\n",
    "# It asks the variable random -- do you have an attribute named \"randint\"?\n",
    "# Yes, so we get the function that randint refers to \n",
    "# Then we invoke it with ()\n",
    "\n",
    "random.randint(0, 100)   "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 36,
   "id": "dd6bdded-1c98-4a53-898f-77009c644515",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'randint' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[0;32mIn[36], line 3\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      1\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;66;03m# what if I just say randint?\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 3\u001b[0m \u001b[43mrandint\u001b[49m(\u001b[38;5;241m0\u001b[39m, \u001b[38;5;241m100\u001b[39m)\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'randint' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# what if I just say randint?\n",
    "\n",
    "randint(0, 100)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "id": "574add6c-914a-458d-bf69-343c4e27bd3a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# sometimes, we want to be able to call it directly\n",
    "# for those times, we have the \"from .. import\" syntax\n",
    "\n",
    "from random import randint    # this means: load the module, don't define the variable, do define randint = random.randint"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "id": "e1cd5887-87b7-41f1-821f-42cdd984ad44",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "64"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 38,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "randint(0, 100)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "f2b710f5-3711-4c21-8394-146042d495f1",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Things to remember about `from .. import`\n",
    "\n",
    "1. The module variable is *not* defined.\n",
    "2. The attribute you asked for is defined as a variable.\n",
    "3. Note that the module, if it wasn't yet loaded, is loaded **COMPLETELY** into memory.\n",
    "4. If you do this, then some other people (or even yourself, in the future) might lose track of the fact that `random` (or whatever you have imported) comes from the `random` module. It might make the code harder to read and maintain.\n",
    "5. If you're working with a module that is deeply nested inside of packages, then it's often easier to use `from .. import` than to say `a.b.c.d.e.f.g()`. Instead, you could say `from a.b.c.d.e.f import g` and then only talk about `g`."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "b2577115-7d5c-4adc-b488-430576918cbb",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# What if the module name is bad/long/clashes with something else?\n",
    "\n",
    "If I import `random`, then that name is taken by the module. What if I had previously written (foolishly) a function called `random`? Now I have a namespace collision!\n",
    "\n",
    "We can avoid this, or other problems, by using `as` -- we can say `import MODNAME as ALIAS`. Then the module is loaded as usual, but the variable that is defined is aliased to whatever we wrote."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "id": "19da95cf-1a71-4b2f-90cf-c8a43137feb7",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import random as r     # we'll still load the module as per usual, but the variable will be r"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "id": "06aaa04d-54ec-4a4a-8c00-0565699a89da",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "99"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 40,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r.randint(0, 100)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 41,
   "id": "3c0d1513-7a66-40c5-8270-f3094e7c6d64",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# this is especially common in the data science world\n",
    "# where a number of popular modules have standard aliases\n",
    "\n",
    "import numpy as np\n",
    "import pandas as pd\n",
    "import seaborn as sns"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "id": "f7284163-e983-4aa6-a46a-404d2915a671",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# You can also use aliases with \"from .. import\"\n",
    "\n",
    "from random import randint as ri   # now, I'm not clashing with the name \"randint\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "3d969729-5dce-4938-b7e8-fde2b64ae40a",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Four variations on `import`\n",
    "\n",
    "1. `import MODNAME`\n",
    "2. `import MODNAME as ALIAS`\n",
    "3. `from MODNAME import NAME`\n",
    "4. `from MODNAME import NAME as ALIAS`\n",
    "\n",
    "There is a fifth way to use `import`, which is:\n",
    "\n",
    "5. `from MODNAME import *`\n",
    "\n",
    "**PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE NEVER USE THIS!**\n",
    "\n",
    "This takes all of the names defined in a module and creates global variables based on them, with their values.\n",
    "\n",
    "There are *MANY* problems with this:\n",
    "\n",
    "- What if there are clashes with names in your program already?\n",
    "- What if you upgrade to a newer version of the module, and it adds 10 new attributes which you didn't know about? Surprise! You now have 10 new variables that you need to avoid accidentally stepping on.\n",
    "- It negates the whole idea of a namespace, of keeping things separate."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "7bb1c66d-1154-473f-9563-e60b60bf4d32",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Exercise: Punctuation counter\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Ask the user to enter the name of a text file. (This will fail on a binary file!)\n",
    "2. Use `string.punctuation`, a string in the `string` module, to create a dict whose keys are the punctuation characters and whose values are all 0.\n",
    "3. Go through the file, one character at a time, and count how many times each puncutation character is in it.\n",
    "4. Since `string.punctuation` is very long and tedious to write, use a shorter name for it."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "id": "a8d35d73-76dc-4844-aed3-2704a4852b8c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdin",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Enter filename:  /etc/passwd\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "!: 0\n",
      "\": 0\n",
      "#: 12\n",
      "$: 0\n",
      "%: 0\n",
      "&: 0\n",
      "': 0\n",
      "(: 1\n",
      "): 1\n",
      "*: 117\n",
      "+: 0\n",
      ",: 0\n",
      "-: 16\n",
      ".: 3\n",
      "/: 616\n",
      ":: 702\n",
      ";: 0\n",
      "<: 0\n",
      "=: 0\n",
      ">: 0\n",
      "?: 0\n",
      "@: 0\n",
      "[: 0\n",
      "\\: 0\n",
      "]: 0\n",
      "^: 0\n",
      "_: 124\n",
      "`: 0\n",
      "{: 0\n",
      "|: 0\n",
      "}: 0\n",
      "~: 0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from string import punctuation as punct\n",
    "\n",
    "filename = input('Enter filename: ').strip()\n",
    "\n",
    "counts = {}\n",
    "for one_character in punct:\n",
    "    counts[one_character] = 0\n",
    "\n",
    "for one_line in open(filename):      # go through the file, one line at a time\n",
    "    for one_character in one_line:   # go through the line, one character at a time\n",
    "        if one_character in counts:  # are we tracking this?\n",
    "            counts[one_character] += 1\n",
    "\n",
    "for key, value in counts.items():\n",
    "    print(f'{key}: {value}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "id": "3c819c85-d687-4eed-9180-51251aa437ee",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from string import punctuation as punct\n",
    "\n",
    "filename = input('Enter filename: ').strip()\n",
    "\n",
    "# I have a string, and I want to create a dict whose keys are\n",
    "# the characters in this string, and whose values are all 0\n",
    "counts = dict.fromkeys(punct, 0)\n",
    "\n",
    "for one_line in open(filename):      # go through the file, one line at a time\n",
    "    for one_character in one_line:   # go through the line, one character at a time\n",
    "        if one_character in counts:  # are we tracking this?\n",
    "            counts[one_character] += 1\n",
    "\n",
    "for key, value in counts.items():\n",
    "    print(f'{key}: {value}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "05cb4857-91d7-4021-8e8c-028f57eef4e1",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "We've seen that when we say `import MODNAME`, Python looks for `MODNAME.py`, first in the current directory and then elsewhere in `sys.path`.\n",
    "\n",
    "Can we write a module? Can it be used? Absolutely! A module is just a text file containing Python code.\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "id": "ec4b743a-1755-4a91-afd8-c944d1b2daa2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# Let's load the module we just created!\n",
    "\n",
    "import mymod"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "id": "13dbba5c-d17f-4431-8361-789bdf68f787",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<module 'mymod' from \"/Users/reuven/Courses/Current/O'Reilly-2023-07July/mymod.py\">"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 44,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mymod"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "id": "34ce9f13-0283-4749-8ae5-c7dc3e125a6c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['__builtins__',\n",
       " '__cached__',\n",
       " '__doc__',\n",
       " '__file__',\n",
       " '__loader__',\n",
       " '__name__',\n",
       " '__package__',\n",
       " '__spec__',\n",
       " 'hello',\n",
       " 'x',\n",
       " 'y']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 45,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir(mymod)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "id": "0abf13e3-87ee-4ab4-8a55-483cbed986ab",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "100"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 46,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mymod.x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "id": "20c773a1-acb2-454a-a91a-bac0d36e8470",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[10, 20, 30]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 47,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mymod.y"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "id": "899a6e0b-e3f9-4ff5-bbd9-0b352d76ef6f",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Hello, world, from mymod!'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mymod.hello('world')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "id": "bb1a93d7-ea3d-450c-bbe1-217bed2e0c9e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['__builtins__',\n",
       " '__cached__',\n",
       " '__doc__',\n",
       " '__file__',\n",
       " '__loader__',\n",
       " '__name__',\n",
       " '__package__',\n",
       " '__spec__',\n",
       " 'hello',\n",
       " 'x',\n",
       " 'y']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 49,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir(mymod)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "id": "de4c2051-2ca6-42b0-9f4c-62a02f877715",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import mymod"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "id": "440c7e56-b635-4d74-a279-0bf4392f0dd1",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['__builtins__',\n",
       " '__cached__',\n",
       " '__doc__',\n",
       " '__file__',\n",
       " '__loader__',\n",
       " '__name__',\n",
       " '__package__',\n",
       " '__spec__',\n",
       " 'hello',\n",
       " 'x',\n",
       " 'y']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 51,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir(mymod)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 52,
   "id": "d7974a82-085b-4d41-bed6-5caf3652a70b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# we need to take advantage of the \"reload\" facility in Python\n",
    "# where is that? in a module! the importlib module re-implements all of importing in Python,\n",
    "# so we can use / learn it\n",
    "\n",
    "from importlib import reload   # now I'll be able to reload modules"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 53,
   "id": "8e77bac9-32b6-4a3f-b5ce-28c6007744ab",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<module 'mymod' from \"/Users/reuven/Courses/Current/O'Reilly-2023-07July/mymod.py\">"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 53,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "reload(mymod)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 54,
   "id": "4ca221b8-18f3-4b5b-a24d-23a8d9c4a0ae",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['__builtins__',\n",
       " '__cached__',\n",
       " '__doc__',\n",
       " '__file__',\n",
       " '__loader__',\n",
       " '__name__',\n",
       " '__package__',\n",
       " '__spec__',\n",
       " 'd',\n",
       " 'hello',\n",
       " 'x',\n",
       " 'y']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 54,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir(mymod)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 55,
   "id": "5ca82dee-e44d-402f-a877-36b5a0c6ce5b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'a': 100, 'b': 200, 'c': 300}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 55,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mymod.d"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "id": "f9f695ae-c504-46ae-9510-855f976f4e80",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hello from mymod!\n",
      "Goodbye from mymod!\n",
      "You imported mymod.py!\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<module 'mymod' from \"/Users/reuven/Courses/Current/O'Reilly-2023-07July/mymod.py\">"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 58,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "reload(mymod)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "8f7c29b0-e2ca-4f5c-a3b7-54992553a170",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Exercise: Writing a module\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Create a module file (you can use the Jupyter editor, if you want) called `mathfun.py`.\n",
    "2. This module will define a single function, `square`. This function will take a single number, and return the number squared.\n",
    "3. From Jupyter, import the module and execute the function. Check to see that you got the right answer.\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "id": "b07f363b-9304-4fb6-abc9-e4722cdcc510",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "25"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 59,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import mathfun\n",
    "\n",
    "mathfun.square(5)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "id": "ca3edf65-34d6-47f8-b5d6-0e7fb7e3dcfb",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<module 'mathfun' from \"/Users/reuven/Courses/Current/O'Reilly-2023-07July/mathfun.py\">"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 61,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "reload(mathfun)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "8cfad2e7-ef06-4b17-84fb-a91d70fa8b21",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Next up\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Python's standard library\n",
    "2. PyPI"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "4787c02d-5ec9-4419-a8ff-18dedfe16e8a",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Python standard library\n",
    "\n",
    "When you download/install Python, it comes with the language, but it also comes with a very large number of modules. These are known as the \"standard library.\" Anyone who installs Python has the same modules.\n",
    "\n",
    "If you only use modules in the standard library, then anyone else who has Python on their system can use your program, too, without having to install anything else.\n",
    "\n",
    "The standard library only gets updated and distributed with Python itself -- so if a module might be updated every month, that's too fast for the Python release cycle, and it's unlikely to be in the standard library."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "id": "a2d578f0-f71a-4917-a2c5-3a45460596c0",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[\"/Users/reuven/Courses/Current/O'Reilly-2023-07July\",\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python311.zip',\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python3.11',\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/python@3.11/3.11.4_1/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.11/lib/python3.11/lib-dynload',\n",
       " '',\n",
       " '/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages',\n",
       " '/usr/local/Cellar/pybind11/2.11.1/libexec/lib/python3.11/site-packages',\n",
       " '/usr/local/opt/python-tk@3.11/libexec']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 62,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sys.path"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "id": "7cab95eb-4b7f-4d4f-8905-4c7b8352eda3",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages\n",
    "\n",
    "import rich"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 71,
   "id": "2bd32a8b-92e3-4005-83f8-ee36e4489ec7",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<pre style=\"white-space:pre;overflow-x:auto;line-height:normal;font-family:Menlo,'DejaVu Sans Mono',consolas,'Courier New',monospace\">👍 Hello, <span style=\"color: #800000; text-decoration-color: #800000; background-color: #af00ff\">world</span>\n",
       "</pre>\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "👍 Hello, \u001b[31;48;5;129mworld\u001b[0m\n"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "rich.print(':thumbsup: Hello, [red on purple]world[/red on purple]')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "661484c4-b082-4bf5-8443-85c4d6ff02ed",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Exercise: Downloading, installing, and using Rich\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Use `pip` to install (and/or upgrade) Rich from PyPI\n",
    "2. Use `import` to load `rich` into your system\n",
    "3. Use `rich.print` to display some combination of colorized text and emojis."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 73,
   "id": "4ea46cf8-7d90-47ea-9d2b-612db02f2c86",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Requirement already satisfied: rich in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (13.5.2)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: markdown-it-py>=2.2.0 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from rich) (2.2.0)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: pygments<3.0.0,>=2.13.0 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from rich) (2.15.1)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: mdurl~=0.1 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from markdown-it-py>=2.2.0->rich) (0.1.2)\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# you can install things from inside of Jupyter using the ! syntax to run a program in the terminal\n",
    "\n",
    "!pip install -U rich"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 74,
   "id": "61a4a883-7411-48a1-a1f8-c989a8a29b62",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<pre style=\"white-space:pre;overflow-x:auto;line-height:normal;font-family:Menlo,'DejaVu Sans Mono',consolas,'Courier New',monospace\">👎 Hi again\n",
       "</pre>\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "👎 Hi again\n"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "rich.print(':thumbsdown: Hi again')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 75,
   "id": "e38c776b-966a-4b44-b73a-b7a141bc9f86",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Requirement already satisfied: requests in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (2.31.0)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: charset-normalizer<4,>=2 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from requests) (3.1.0)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: idna<4,>=2.5 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from requests) (3.4)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: urllib3<3,>=1.21.1 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from requests) (1.26.16)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: certifi>=2017.4.17 in /usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages (from requests) (2023.5.7)\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "!pip install -U requests\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 76,
   "id": "c8ef40c1-45fd-410f-8b43-460506ec401b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import requests \n",
    "\n",
    "r = requests.get('https://python.org')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 77,
   "id": "7ab92030-52da-43c0-8786-4957602c3558",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<Response [200]>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 77,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# r is a \"response object,\" with the result of our request\n",
    "\n",
    "r"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 78,
   "id": "d48154fe-3863-4328-9d01-5ba413d68d58",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'Connection': 'keep-alive', 'Content-Length': '49987', 'Server': 'nginx', 'Content-Type': 'text/html; charset=utf-8', 'X-Frame-Options': 'SAMEORIGIN', 'Via': '1.1 vegur, 1.1 varnish, 1.1 varnish', 'Accept-Ranges': 'bytes', 'Date': 'Thu, 03 Aug 2023 18:47:40 GMT', 'Age': '2915', 'X-Served-By': 'cache-iad-kiad7000025-IAD, cache-mrs10575-MRS', 'X-Cache': 'HIT, HIT', 'X-Cache-Hits': '157, 214', 'X-Timer': 'S1691088460.304253,VS0,VE0', 'Vary': 'Cookie', 'Strict-Transport-Security': 'max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains; preload'}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 78,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r.headers"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 79,
   "id": "b0188d1c-9cc0-46a7-a435-b00bc8d15a1d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/success-stories/category/education/\" title=\"\">Education</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-4\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/success-stories/category/engineering/\" title=\"\">Engineering</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-5\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/success-stories/category/government/\" title=\"\">Government</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-6\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/success-stories/category/scientific/\" title=\"\">Scientific</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-7\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/success-stories/category/software-development/\" title=\"\">Software Development</a></li>\\n    \\n</ul>\\n\\n        \\n    </li>\\n    \\n    \\n    \\n    <li id=\"news\" class=\"tier-1 element-6  \" aria-haspopup=\"true\">\\n        <a href=\"/blogs/\" title=\"News from around the Python world\" class=\"\">News</a>\\n        \\n            \\n\\n<ul class=\"subnav menu\" role=\"menu\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-1\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/blogs/\" title=\"Python Insider Blog Posts\">Python News</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-2\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/psf/newsletter/\" title=\"Python Software Foundation Newsletter\">PSF Newsletter</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-3\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"http://pyfound.blogspot.com/\" title=\"PSF Blog\">PSF News</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-4\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"http://pycon.blogspot.com/\" title=\"PyCon Blog\">PyCon US News</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-5\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"http://planetpython.org/\" title=\"Planet Python\">News from the Community</a></li>\\n    \\n</ul>\\n\\n        \\n    </li>\\n    \\n    \\n    \\n    <li id=\"events\" class=\"tier-1 element-7  \" aria-haspopup=\"true\">\\n        <a href=\"/events/\" title=\"\" class=\"\">Events</a>\\n        \\n            \\n\\n<ul class=\"subnav menu\" role=\"menu\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-1\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/events/python-events/\" title=\"\">Python Events</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-2\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/events/python-user-group/\" title=\"\">User Group Events</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-3\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/events/python-events/past/\" title=\"\">Python Events Archive</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-4\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"/events/python-user-group/past/\" title=\"\">User Group Events Archive</a></li>\\n    \\n        <li class=\"tier-2 element-5\" role=\"treeitem\"><a href=\"https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEventsCalendar#Submitting_an_Event\" title=\"\">Submit an Event</a></li>\\n    \\n</ul>\\n\\n        \\n    </li>\\n    \\n    \\n    \\n    \\n  \\n</ul>\\n\\n                    \\n                </nav>\\n\\n                <div class=\"header-banner \"> <!-- for optional \"do-not-print\" class -->\\n                    \\n        <div id=\"dive-into-python\" class=\"flex-slideshow slideshow\">\\n\\n            <ul class=\"launch-shell menu\" id=\"launch-shell\">\\n                <li>\\n                    <a class=\"button prompt\" id=\"start-shell\" data-shell-container=\"#dive-into-python\" href=\"/shell/\">&gt;_\\n                        <span class=\"message\">Launch Interactive Shell</span>\\n                    </a>\\n                </li>\\n            </ul>\\n\\n            <ul class=\"slides menu\">\\n                \\n                <li>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-code\"><pre><code><span class=\"comment\"># Python 3: Fibonacci series up to n</span>\\r\\n>>> def fib(n):\\r\\n>>>     a, b = 0, 1\\r\\n>>>     while a &lt; n:\\r\\n>>>         print(a, end=\\' \\')\\r\\n>>>         a, b = b, a+b\\r\\n>>>     print()\\r\\n>>> fib(1000)\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987</span></code></pre></div>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-copy\"><h1>Functions Defined</h1>\\r\\n<p>The core of extensible programming is defining functions. Python allows mandatory and optional arguments, keyword arguments, and even arbitrary argument lists. <a href=\"//docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#defining-functions\">More about defining functions in Python&nbsp;3</a></p></div>\\n                </li>\\n                \\n                <li>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-code\"><pre><code><span class=\"comment\"># Python 3: List comprehensions</span>\\r\\n>>> fruits = [\\'Banana\\', \\'Apple\\', \\'Lime\\']\\r\\n>>> loud_fruits = [fruit.upper() for fruit in fruits]\\r\\n>>> print(loud_fruits)\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">[\\'BANANA\\', \\'APPLE\\', \\'LIME\\']</span>\\r\\n\\r\\n<span class=\"comment\"># List and the enumerate function</span>\\r\\n>>> list(enumerate(fruits))\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">[(0, \\'Banana\\'), (1, \\'Apple\\'), (2, \\'Lime\\')]</span></code></pre></div>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-copy\"><h1>Compound Data Types</h1>\\r\\n<p>Lists (known as arrays in other languages) are one of the compound data types that Python understands. Lists can be indexed, sliced and manipulated with other built-in functions. <a href=\"//docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#lists\">More about lists in Python&nbsp;3</a></p></div>\\n                </li>\\n                \\n                <li>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-code\"><pre><code><span class=\"comment\"># Python 3: Simple arithmetic</span>\\r\\n>>> 1 / 2\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">0.5</span>\\r\\n>>> 2 ** 3\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">8</span>\\r\\n>>> 17 / 3  <span class=\"comment\"># classic division returns a float</span>\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">5.666666666666667</span>\\r\\n>>> 17 // 3  <span class=\"comment\"># floor division</span>\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">5</span></code></pre></div>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-copy\"><h1>Intuitive Interpretation</h1>\\r\\n<p>Calculations are simple with Python, and expression syntax is straightforward: the operators <code>+</code>, <code>-</code>, <code>*</code> and <code>/</code> work as expected; parentheses <code>()</code> can be used for grouping. <a href=\"http://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#using-python-as-a-calculator\">More about simple math functions in Python&nbsp;3</a>.</p></div>\\n                </li>\\n                \\n                <li>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-code\"><pre><code><span class=\"comment\"># For loop on a list</span>\\r\\n>>> numbers = [2, 4, 6, 8]\\r\\n>>> product = 1\\r\\n>>> for number in numbers:\\r\\n...    product = product * number\\r\\n... \\r\\n>>> print(\\'The product is:\\', product)\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">The product is: 384</span></code></pre></div>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-copy\"><h1>All the Flow You&rsquo;d Expect</h1>\\r\\n<p>Python knows the usual control flow statements that other languages speak &mdash; <code>if</code>, <code>for</code>, <code>while</code> and <code>range</code> &mdash; with some of its own twists, of course. <a href=\"//docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html\">More control flow tools in Python&nbsp;3</a></p></div>\\n                </li>\\n                \\n                <li>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-code\"><pre><code><span class=\"comment\"># Simple output (with Unicode)</span>\\r\\n>>> print(\"Hello, I\\'m Python!\")\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">Hello, I\\'m Python!</span>\\r\\n<span class=\"comment\"># Input, assignment</span>\\r\\n>>> name = input(\\'What is your name?\\\\n\\')\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">What is your name?\\r\\nPython</span>\\r\\n>>> print(f\\'Hi, {name}.\\')\\r\\n<span class=\"output\">Hi, Python.</span></code>\\r\\n</pre></div>\\n                    <div class=\"slide-copy\"><h1>Quick &amp; Easy to Learn</h1>\\r\\n<p>Experienced programmers in any other language can pick up Python very quickly, and beginners find the clean syntax and indentation structure easy to learn. <a href=\"//docs.python.org/3/tutorial/\">Whet your appetite</a> with our Python&nbsp;3 overview.</p></div>\\n                </li>\\n                \\n            </ul>\\n        </div>\\n\\n\\n                </div>\\n\\n                \\n        <div class=\"introduction\">\\n            <p>Python is a programming language that lets you work quickly <span class=\"breaker\"></span>and integrate systems more effectively. <a class=\"readmore\" href=\"/doc/\">Learn More</a></p>\\n        </div>\\n\\n\\n             </div><!-- end .container -->\\n        </header>\\n\\n        <div id=\"content\" class=\"content-wrapper\">\\n            <!-- Main Content Column -->\\n            <div class=\"container\">\\n\\n                <section class=\"main-content \" role=\"main\">\\n\\n                    \\n                    \\n\\n                    \\n\\n                    \\n\\n                \\n\\n                <div class=\"row\">\\n\\n                    <div class=\"small-widget get-started-widget\">\\n                        <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-get-started\"></span>Get Started</h2>\\r\\n<p>Whether you\\'re new to programming or an experienced developer, it\\'s easy to learn and use Python.</p>\\r\\n<p><a href=\"/about/gettingstarted/\">Start with our Beginner&rsquo;s Guide</a></p>\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                    <div class=\"small-widget download-widget\">\\n                        <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-download\"></span>Download</h2>\\n<p>Python source code and installers are available for download for all versions!</p>\\n<p>Latest: <a href=\"/downloads/release/python-3114/\">Python 3.11.4</a></p>\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                    <div class=\"small-widget documentation-widget\">\\n                        <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-documentation\"></span>Docs</h2>\\r\\n<p>Documentation for Python\\'s standard library, along with tutorials and guides, are available online.</p>\\r\\n<p><a href=\"https://docs.python.org\">docs.python.org</a></p>\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                    <div class=\"small-widget jobs-widget last\">\\n                        <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-jobs\"></span>Jobs</h2>\\r\\n<p>Looking for work or have a Python related position that you\\'re trying to hire for? Our <strong>relaunched community-run job board</strong> is the place to go.</p>\\r\\n<p><a href=\"//jobs.python.org\">jobs.python.org</a></p>\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                </div>\\n\\n                <div class=\"list-widgets row\">\\n\\n                    <div class=\"medium-widget blog-widget\">\\n                        \\n                        <div class=\"shrubbery\">\\n                        \\n                            <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-news\"></span>Latest News</h2>\\n                            <p class=\"give-me-more\"><a href=\"https://blog.python.org\" title=\"More News\">More</a></p>\\n                            \\n                            <ul class=\"menu\">\\n                                \\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-08-02T14:51:00.000002+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>08-02</time>\\n <a href=\"https://pyfound.blogspot.com/2023/08/announcing-python-software-foundation.html\">Announcing Python Software Foundation Fellow Members for Q1 2023! \\xf0\\x9f\\x8e\\x89</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-07-11T20:08:00.000001+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>07-11</time>\\n <a href=\"https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2023/07/pleased-to-announce-release-of-python-3.html\">Python 3.12.0 beta 4 released</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-07-01T00:13:00.000005+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>07-01</time>\\n <a href=\"https://pyfound.blogspot.com/2023/06/announcing-2023-psf-board-election.html\">Announcing the 2023 PSF Board Election Results!</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-06-22T13:50:00.000003+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>06-22</time>\\n <a href=\"https://pyfound.blogspot.com/2023/06/announcing-our-new-security-developer.html\">Announcing Our New Security Developer in Residence!</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-06-20T18:52:00.000001+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>06-20</time>\\n <a href=\"https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2023/06/python-3120-beta-3-released.html\">Python 3.12.0 beta 3 released</a></li>\\n                                \\n                            </ul>\\n                        </div><!-- end .shrubbery -->\\n\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                    <div class=\"medium-widget event-widget last\">\\n                        \\n                        <div class=\"shrubbery\">\\n                        \\n                            <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-calendar\"></span>Upcoming Events</h2>\\n                            <p class=\"give-me-more\"><a href=\"/events/calendars/\" title=\"More Events\">More</a></p>\\n                            \\n                            <ul class=\"menu\">\\n                                \\n                                \\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-08-11T00:00:00+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>08-11</time>\\n <a href=\"/events/python-events/1560/\">PyCon KR</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                \\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-08-11T00:00:00+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>08-11</time>\\n <a href=\"/events/python-user-group/1572/\">Django Girls Abuja</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                \\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-08-14T00:00:00+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>08-14</time>\\n <a href=\"/events/python-events/1553/\">EuroSciPy 2023</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                \\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-08-18T00:00:00+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>08-18</time>\\n <a href=\"/events/python-events/1558/\">DjangoConAU 2023</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                \\n                                \\n                                <li>\\n<time datetime=\"2023-08-18T00:00:00+00:00\"><span class=\"say-no-more\">2023-</span>08-18</time>\\n <a href=\"/events/python-events/1561/\">PyCon AU 2023</a></li>\\n                                \\n                                \\n                            </ul>\\n                        </div>\\n\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                </div>\\n\\n                <div class=\"row\">\\n\\n                    <div class=\"medium-widget success-stories-widget\">\\n                        \\n\\n\\n\\n                        <div class=\"shrubbery\">\\n                            \\n\\n                            <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-success-stories\"></span>Success Stories</h2>\\n                            <p class=\"give-me-more\"><a href=\"/success-stories/\" title=\"More Success Stories\">More</a></p>\\n\\n                            \\n                            <div class=\"success-story-item\" id=\"success-story-838\">\\n\\n                            <blockquote>\\n                                <a href=\"/success-stories/saving-the-world-with-open-data-and-python/\">When an Open Data standard is created and promoted, it\\xe2\\x80\\x99s important to think why - what change is this trying to drive? What will people do with this data that they couldn\\xe2\\x80\\x99t do before?</a>\\n                            </blockquote>\\n\\n                            <table cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" border=\"0\" width=\"100%\" class=\"quote-from\">\\n                                <tbody>\\n                                    <tr>\\n                                        \\n                                        <td><p><a href=\"/success-stories/saving-the-world-with-open-data-and-python/\">Saving the world with Open Data and Python</a> <em>by James Baster</em></p></td>\\n                                    </tr>\\n                                </tbody>\\n                            </table>\\n                            </div>\\n                            \\n\\n                        </div><!-- end .shrubbery -->\\n\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                    <div class=\"medium-widget applications-widget last\">\\n                        <div class=\"shrubbery\">\\n                            <h2 class=\"widget-title\"><span aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"icon-python\"></span>Use Python for&hellip;</h2>\\r\\n<p class=\"give-me-more\"><a href=\"/about/apps\" title=\"More Applications\">More</a></p>\\r\\n\\r\\n<ul class=\"menu\">\\r\\n    <li><b>Web Development</b>:\\r\\n        <span class=\"tag-wrapper\"><a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.djangoproject.com/\">Django</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.pylonsproject.org/\">Pyramid</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://bottlepy.org\">Bottle</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://tornadoweb.org\">Tornado</a>, <a href=\"http://flask.pocoo.org/\" class=\"tag\">Flask</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.web2py.com/\">web2py</a></span></li>\\r\\n    <li><b>GUI Development</b>:\\r\\n        <span class=\"tag-wrapper\"><a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://wiki.python.org/moin/TkInter\">tkInter</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject\">PyGObject</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/pyqt/intro\">PyQt</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"https://wiki.qt.io/PySide\">PySide</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"https://kivy.org/\">Kivy</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.wxpython.org/\">wxPython</a></span></li>\\r\\n    <li><b>Scientific and Numeric</b>:\\r\\n        <span class=\"tag-wrapper\">\\r\\n<a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.scipy.org\">SciPy</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://pandas.pydata.org/\">Pandas</a>, <a href=\"http://ipython.org\" class=\"tag\">IPython</a></span></li>\\r\\n    <li><b>Software Development</b>:\\r\\n        <span class=\"tag-wrapper\"><a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://buildbot.net/\">Buildbot</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://trac.edgewall.org/\">Trac</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://roundup.sourceforge.net/\">Roundup</a></span></li>\\r\\n    <li><b>System Administration</b>:\\r\\n        <span class=\"tag-wrapper\"><a class=\"tag\" href=\"http://www.ansible.com\">Ansible</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"https://saltproject.io\">Salt</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"https://www.openstack.org\">OpenStack</a>, <a class=\"tag\" href=\"https://xon.sh\">xonsh</a></span></li>\\r\\n</ul>\\n                        </div><!-- end .shrubbery -->\\n                    </div>\\n\\n                </div>\\n\\n                \\n                <div class=\"pep-widget\">\\n\\n                    <h2 class=\"widget-title\">\\n                        <span class=\"prompt\">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <a href=\"/dev/peps/\">Python Enhancement Proposals<span class=\"say-no-more\"> (PEPs)</span></a>: The future of Python<span class=\"say-no-more\"> is discussed here.</span>\\n                        <a aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"rss-link\" href=\"/dev/peps/peps.rss\"><span class=\"icon-feed\"></span> RSS</a>\\n                    </h2>\\n\\n\\n                    \\n                    \\n                </div>\\n\\n                                <div class=\"psf-widget\">\\n\\n            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      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 79,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r.content"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "0964e5d5-de29-47f9-a04d-d1e63ca3d26f",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Exercise: Web page sizes\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Download and install `requests`.\n",
    "2. Create a list of strings, URLs of pages you like.\n",
    "3. Iterate over each URL, and use `requests.get` to retrieve the page.\n",
    "4. Print the URL and the size (length) of the content you got back.\n",
    "5. Which of your URLs has the largest page size?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 80,
   "id": "3b46d107-ec28-4c14-981d-b0ef517f9c34",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "https://lerner.co.il\t:295175\n",
      "https://python.org\t:49987\n",
      "https://oreilly.com\t:81818\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "my_urls = ['https://lerner.co.il',\n",
    "           'https://python.org',\n",
    "           'https://oreilly.com']\n",
    "\n",
    "for one_url in my_urls:\n",
    "    r = requests.get(one_url)\n",
    "    print(f'{one_url}\\t:{len(r.content)}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 81,
   "id": "c40d87b0-c4ee-4f9a-a995-abefe022d5ab",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# we can use requests to consume APIs that give off JSON\n",
    "\n",
    "r = requests.get('http://httpbin.org/json')\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 82,
   "id": "d73a5295-9fe6-48a3-8d83-98b3166c47b3",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "b'{\\n  \"slideshow\": {\\n    \"author\": \"Yours Truly\", \\n    \"date\": \"date of publication\", \\n    \"slides\": [\\n      {\\n        \"title\": \"Wake up to WonderWidgets!\", \\n        \"type\": \"all\"\\n      }, \\n      {\\n        \"items\": [\\n          \"Why <em>WonderWidgets</em> are great\", \\n          \"Who <em>buys</em> WonderWidgets\"\\n        ], \\n        \"title\": \"Overview\", \\n        \"type\": \"all\"\\n      }\\n    ], \\n    \"title\": \"Sample Slide Show\"\\n  }\\n}\\n'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 82,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r.content"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 86,
   "id": "f3275816-2106-4a63-920d-bac2a07dc50a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'slideshow': {'author': 'Yours Truly',\n",
       "  'date': 'date of publication',\n",
       "  'slides': [{'title': 'Wake up to WonderWidgets!', 'type': 'all'},\n",
       "   {'items': ['Why <em>WonderWidgets</em> are great',\n",
       "     'Who <em>buys</em> WonderWidgets'],\n",
       "    'title': 'Overview',\n",
       "    'type': 'all'}],\n",
       "  'title': 'Sample Slide Show'}}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 86,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# I want to get back Python objects from this string\n",
    "# option 1: use the \"json\" module in the standard library\n",
    "\n",
    "import json\n",
    "json.loads(r.content)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 87,
   "id": "220d329c-aef3-4897-847f-3f2815049557",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'slideshow': {'author': 'Yours Truly',\n",
       "  'date': 'date of publication',\n",
       "  'slides': [{'title': 'Wake up to WonderWidgets!', 'type': 'all'},\n",
       "   {'items': ['Why <em>WonderWidgets</em> are great',\n",
       "     'Who <em>buys</em> WonderWidgets'],\n",
       "    'title': 'Overview',\n",
       "    'type': 'all'}],\n",
       "  'title': 'Sample Slide Show'}}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 87,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# option 2: let requests do it for you!\n",
    "\n",
    "r.json()  # this is a method, not data"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "ffd1cd10-8963-4b2b-975a-cefe3f1869e5",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Coming up\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Some tips and tricks about modules/packages\n",
    "2. What's next?\n",
    "3. Open Q&A!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "32358f82-db9c-492d-b628-4c8a967dd392",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# What's next?\n",
    "\n",
    "Just as you need to use and practice a foreign language to retain your fluency, as well as get better, you need to do that with Python.\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Use it -- find little things where you can use Python in your day-to-day life.\n",
    "2. Do practice problems and projects.  Check out https://PracticeYourPython.com (which I run), where I list a bunch of places where you can get problems to improve.\n",
    "3. Find an open-source project (they all want help!) and contribute.\n",
    "\n",
    "What can/should you learn next?\n",
    "- Object-oriented programming\n",
    "- Data science -- this is a hugely popular area, and Python is the #1 language for it\n",
    "- Web development\n",
    "- Devops\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 88,
   "id": "b1d625f7-87f1-44e1-a4b8-f42a2f97755d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import pandas as pd\n",
    "from pandas import DataFrame"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 89,
   "id": "7c8adde7-d59b-446b-a069-a8a3bd0f4d99",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df = DataFrame([[10, 20, 30], [40, 50, 60]])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 90,
   "id": "2ee59379-c1b1-4aa5-b5c2-bb28a19bc2a4",
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "ValueError",
     "evalue": "Invalid tag name '0'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mValueError\u001b[0m                                Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[0;32mIn[90], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0m \u001b[43mdf\u001b[49m\u001b[38;5;241;43m.\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43mto_xml\u001b[49m\u001b[43m(\u001b[49m\u001b[43m)\u001b[49m\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32m/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/core/frame.py:3342\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mDataFrame.to_xml\u001b[0;34m(self, path_or_buffer, index, root_name, row_name, na_rep, attr_cols, elem_cols, namespaces, prefix, encoding, xml_declaration, pretty_print, parser, stylesheet, compression, storage_options)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m   3321\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28;01mraise\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;167;01mValueError\u001b[39;00m(\u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124mValues for parser can only be lxml or etree.\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m)\n\u001b[1;32m   3323\u001b[0m xml_formatter \u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m TreeBuilder(\n\u001b[1;32m   3324\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m,\n\u001b[1;32m   3325\u001b[0m     path_or_buffer\u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39mpath_or_buffer,\n\u001b[0;32m   (...)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m   3339\u001b[0m     storage_options\u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39mstorage_options,\n\u001b[1;32m   3340\u001b[0m )\n\u001b[0;32m-> 3342\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[43mxml_formatter\u001b[49m\u001b[38;5;241;43m.\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43mwrite_output\u001b[49m\u001b[43m(\u001b[49m\u001b[43m)\u001b[49m\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32m/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/io/formats/xml.py:314\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mBaseXMLFormatter.write_output\u001b[0;34m(self)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m    313\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mdef\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;21mwrite_output\u001b[39m(\u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m) \u001b[38;5;241m-\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m>\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28mstr\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;241m|\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28;01mNone\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[0;32m--> 314\u001b[0m     xml_doc \u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28;43mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[38;5;241;43m.\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43mbuild_tree\u001b[49m\u001b[43m(\u001b[49m\u001b[43m)\u001b[49m\n\u001b[1;32m    316\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28;01mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39mpath_or_buffer \u001b[38;5;129;01mis\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;129;01mnot\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28;01mNone\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m    317\u001b[0m         \u001b[38;5;28;01mwith\u001b[39;00m get_handle(\n\u001b[1;32m    318\u001b[0m             \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39mpath_or_buffer,\n\u001b[1;32m    319\u001b[0m             \u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124mwb\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m,\n\u001b[0;32m   (...)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m    322\u001b[0m             is_text\u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;28;01mFalse\u001b[39;00m,\n\u001b[1;32m    323\u001b[0m         ) \u001b[38;5;28;01mas\u001b[39;00m handles:\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32m/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/io/formats/xml.py:469\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mLxmlXMLFormatter.build_tree\u001b[0;34m(self)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m    467\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;129;01mnot\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39mattr_cols \u001b[38;5;129;01mand\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;129;01mnot\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39melem_cols:\n\u001b[1;32m    468\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39melem_cols \u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28mlist\u001b[39m(d\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39mkeys())\n\u001b[0;32m--> 469\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28;43mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[38;5;241;43m.\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43mbuild_elems\u001b[49m\u001b[43m(\u001b[49m\u001b[43md\u001b[49m\u001b[43m,\u001b[49m\u001b[43m \u001b[49m\u001b[43melem_row\u001b[49m\u001b[43m)\u001b[49m\n\u001b[1;32m    471\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m    472\u001b[0m     elem_row \u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39mbuild_attribs(d, elem_row)\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32m/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/io/formats/xml.py:515\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mLxmlXMLFormatter.build_elems\u001b[0;34m(self, d, elem_row)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m    512\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mdef\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;21mbuild_elems\u001b[39m(\u001b[38;5;28mself\u001b[39m, d: \u001b[38;5;28mdict\u001b[39m[\u001b[38;5;28mstr\u001b[39m, Any], elem_row: Any) \u001b[38;5;241m-\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m>\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28;01mNone\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m    513\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28;01mfrom\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;21;01mlxml\u001b[39;00m\u001b[38;5;21;01m.\u001b[39;00m\u001b[38;5;21;01metree\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28;01mimport\u001b[39;00m SubElement\n\u001b[0;32m--> 515\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28;43mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[38;5;241;43m.\u001b[39;49m\u001b[43m_build_elems\u001b[49m\u001b[43m(\u001b[49m\u001b[43mSubElement\u001b[49m\u001b[43m,\u001b[49m\u001b[43m \u001b[49m\u001b[43md\u001b[49m\u001b[43m,\u001b[49m\u001b[43m \u001b[49m\u001b[43melem_row\u001b[49m\u001b[43m)\u001b[49m\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32m/usr/local/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/io/formats/xml.py:309\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mBaseXMLFormatter._build_elems\u001b[0;34m(self, sub_element_cls, d, elem_row)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m    307\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mtry\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m    308\u001b[0m     val \u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28;01mNone\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28;01mif\u001b[39;00m isna(d[col]) \u001b[38;5;129;01mor\u001b[39;00m d[col] \u001b[38;5;241m==\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;28;01melse\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;28mstr\u001b[39m(d[col])\n\u001b[0;32m--> 309\u001b[0m     \u001b[43msub_element_cls\u001b[49m\u001b[43m(\u001b[49m\u001b[43melem_row\u001b[49m\u001b[43m,\u001b[49m\u001b[43m \u001b[49m\u001b[43melem_name\u001b[49m\u001b[43m)\u001b[49m\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39mtext \u001b[38;5;241m=\u001b[39m val\n\u001b[1;32m    310\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28;01mexcept\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;167;01mKeyError\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m    311\u001b[0m     \u001b[38;5;28;01mraise\u001b[39;00m \u001b[38;5;167;01mKeyError\u001b[39;00m(\u001b[38;5;124mf\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124mno valid column, \u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;132;01m{\u001b[39;00mcol\u001b[38;5;132;01m}\u001b[39;00m\u001b[38;5;124m\"\u001b[39m)\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32msrc/lxml/etree.pyx:3153\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mlxml.etree.SubElement\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32msrc/lxml/apihelpers.pxi:179\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mlxml.etree._makeSubElement\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n",
      "File \u001b[0;32msrc/lxml/apihelpers.pxi:1754\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mlxml.etree._tagValidOrRaise\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mValueError\u001b[0m: Invalid tag name '0'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.to_xml("
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 92,
   "id": "c4c8e570-e358-44ac-b74e-27b476bb5925",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Sure enough, index failure: list index out of range\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# what is try?\n",
    "\n",
    "mylist = [10, 20, 30]\n",
    "\n",
    "try:  # I'm worried that an exception will be raised in this block of code - and I have a plan for when that happens\n",
    "    x = mylist[99999]   \n",
    "except IndexError as e:\n",
    "    print(f'Sure enough, index failure: {e}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "id": "f9568109-fdae-4ac0-b85a-aa92421ba6a0",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
 ],
 "metadata": {
  "kernelspec": {
   "display_name": "Python 3 (ipykernel)",
   "language": "python",
   "name": "python3"
  },
  "language_info": {
   "codemirror_mode": {
    "name": "ipython",
    "version": 3
   },
   "file_extension": ".py",
   "mimetype": "text/x-python",
   "name": "python",
   "nbconvert_exporter": "python",
   "pygments_lexer": "ipython3",
   "version": "3.11.4"
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