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2 changes: 0 additions & 2 deletions book.json
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"expandable-chapters-small@^0.1.7",
"sectionx@^3.1.0",
"local-video@^1.0.1",
"sitemap-general@^0.1.1",
"[email protected]",
"favicon@^0.0.2",
"todo@^0.1.3",
"alerts@^0.2.0",
"include-csv@^0.1.0",
"puml@^1.0.1",
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22 changes: 11 additions & 11 deletions content/ethereum/ethereum-sharding-overview-and-finality.md
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首先,让我们来看一下在主链(你可以理解为现在的 Mainnet chain)和分片链(shard chain)上不同层次的对象区别:

![Table 1. Terminology.](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-8d156e10bade5a17.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Table 1. Terminology.](../images/127313-8d156e10bade5a17.png)

可以简单地这么认为,交易都会被装入 “collation”。与区块类似,一个 collation 也会指向它在链(指的是分片链)上的 parent collation。 成为一个 “collator”,就意味着你有资格在 POS 分片链上提名一个新的 collation。

![Figure 1. A glimpse of basic collation data structure.](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-3a69614f0c028914.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 1. A glimpse of basic collation data structure.](../images/127313-3a69614f0c028914.png)

## 基本的二次分片

Expand Down Expand Up @@ -60,11 +60,11 @@

“时期(period)”被定义为一个区块时间的准备窗口(a bounding a window of block times),比如 `PERIOD_LENGTH = 5` 意味着每个周期有 5 个块。这表明在每个周期内,对于每个分片只有不超过 **1** 个有效的 collation。

![Figure 2 (a). Quadratic sharding. The proofs of shard states would be recorded on main chain VMC.](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-48dab933ae6ea057.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 2 (a). Quadratic sharding. The proofs of shard states would be recorded on main chain VMC.](../images/127313-48dab933ae6ea057.png)

一旦验证人被采样为合格的 collator 来提案一个新的 collation,collator 必须对最近的 collation 进行验证,并发送一笔交易来调用 `addHeader` 函数。注意,如果 collator **周期 10** 被采样到提交一个新的 collation,这意味着 `addHeader` 交易 **必须被包含在周期 10 里面**,也就是说,交易必须在区块号 `10 * PERIOD_LENGTH` 到区块号 `(10 + 1) * PERIOD_LENGTH - 1` 之间.

![Figure 2 (b). For one shard, only one collation per period; one block can include multiple addHeader transactions of different shards.](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-557a7b4ee36264f8.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 2 (b). For one shard, only one collation per period; one block can include multiple addHeader transactions of different shards.](../images/127313-557a7b4ee36264f8.png)


collation header hash 必须被记录在 VMC 上,以证明它的 header 全局有效。此外,分片的所有其他验证人必须时刻检测 VMC 以获得最新状态,然后验证交易是否也有效。
Expand All @@ -75,19 +75,19 @@ collation header hash 必须被记录在 VMC 上,以证明它的 header 全局

Figure 3(a) 中有个例子,主链上有两个分叉,在下图中第二条链是最长有效主链。因为 `block B3` 是 head block,很容易看出 `collation C3` 是 head collation。

![Figure 3 (a).](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-2130de02ce98ecbd.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 3 (a).](../images/127313-2130de02ce98ecbd.png)

然后 Figure 3(b) 中 `block B3'` 到了。假设 `block B3` 的得分(score)高于 `block B3'`,那么上面的链仍然是最长主链:

![Figure 2 (b).](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-00906f6529d95f84.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 2 (b).](../images/127313-00906f6529d95f84.png)

最后 Figure 3(c) 到了 `block 4`。注意到,对于这个分片,虽然 `collation C3` 的得分比 `collation C2` 更高,但是下方的链是**最长有效主链**,所有现在 `collation C2` 是 head collation:

![Figure 3 (c)](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-63cf06f07825bec7.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 3 (c)](../images/127313-63cf06f07825bec7.png)

>更多内容:另一个设计 -- Vlad Zamfir 的 [sharded fork choice rule](https://twitter.com/VladZamfir/status/945358660187893761)
![An ingenious design for guaranteeing blocks atomicity before they are finalized.](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-6f6c93920b44ffa1.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![An ingenious design for guaranteeing blocks atomicity before they are finalized.](../images/127313-6f6c93920b44ffa1.png)

## 可扩展性与安全性之权衡

Expand All @@ -105,9 +105,9 @@ Figure 3(a) 中有个例子,主链上有两个分叉,在下图中第二条

如果采样不能以较高的随机性进行选择,那么攻击者很可能在分片中展开 **1% 攻击**:如果有 100 个分片,攻击者可以专注于攻击某*一个*分片,他们只需要 1% 的hash rate(POW)/deposit(POS) 就可以控制分片[4].

![Figure 4. Traditional majority attack (51 % Attack)](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-9138ceb26bc263b1.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 4. Traditional majority attack (51 % Attack)](../images/127313-9138ceb26bc263b1.png)

![Figure 5. Sharding 1% attack](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-94c92c07edce0330.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 5. Sharding 1% attack](../images/127313-94c92c07edce0330.png)

## 分片的区块链显式最终确定性

Expand All @@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ Figure 3(a) 中有个例子,主链上有两个分叉,在下图中第二条

一旦完成验证人采样并再混洗(reshuffle),就会立刻触发同步。有了无状态客户端机制,**再混洗**(也就是改变验证者检测的分片,并同步分片链)的成本低至(接近)0,因为它们**只需要验证最新的 collation(也就是有着最高得分的 collation)来同步分片**

![Figure 6. Stateless client model](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-4a458b4eef3b5b6c.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Figure 6. Stateless client model](../images/127313-4a458b4eef3b5b6c.png)

因为同步过程可能非常快,无状态客户端模型就可能在每个 collation 之间再混洗成。这不仅会减轻存储压力和开销,也会使系统更安全,因为频繁采样能够获得适应性攻击的抵抗能力。

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18 changes: 9 additions & 9 deletions content/iota/iota_consensus_v1.0.md
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Expand Up @@ -7,29 +7,29 @@ IOTA 交易,确认和共识

与区块链技术不同,IOTA 并不是一条有着时间序列概念,每个区块前后相连的链,链中的每个块包含一些交易。在 IOTA 中,每笔交易都可以其他交易连接(所谓连接,就是验证其他交易),并且可并行发生。下面的内容将就如何在 IOTA 中加入交易,验证交易及其共识机制展开。

![初始 tangle 状态](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-7916a022a9b78649.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![初始 tangle 状态](../images/127313-7916a022a9b78649.png)

上图是 tangle 的一个案例,下面内容都会围绕该图展开。绿色交易代表已经被网络以高确定性(high certainty)地确认,蓝色交易是部分确认,也就是确定性较低。灰色(以及下面的黄色)方框表示还没有任何人验证过的 tip (*tip 有尖端,尾部的意思,比如手指尖就可以用这个词,这里的 tip 表示 tangle 中最新的尚无人验证的交易*)。红色交易,表示有冲突,或无效交易。

在上图中,交易 `α` 并非一笔普通交易。它引用了交易 `h``l`,由于交易 `h` 已经被交易 `l` 引用了, `α` 会选择一个 tip(`l`) 和 一个显然不是 tip 的交易(`h`)。这么做目前似乎并没有问题,网络也允许这样的行为。

## 加入一笔交易

![加入一笔交易](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-ef9eedc8340e754a.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![加入一笔交易](../images/127313-ef9eedc8340e754a.png)

为了向 tangle 中加入一笔新的交易,用户必须从 tangle 中随机挑选出两个 tip(tip 就是尚未确认的交易),并对两个 tip 进行验证。所谓验证,意味着用户需要检查 tip 的签名,即所谓的 PoW,并确保所选的 tip 与之前的任何交易(无论是直接相关还是间接相关)都没有冲突。如果所选的 tip 是合法的,用户就对其进行引用,也就是加入新的交易。

如果交易既没有被所选的 tip 直接引用,也没有被间接引用,那么对于当前的验证过程来说,这些交易就是不相关的交易。对于不相关交易,会由其他人或是之后的交易来进行验证,并将它们加入到 tangle 中。

## 另一笔交易

![另一笔交易](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-f6c7eaf781fac7f4.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![另一笔交易](../images/127313-f6c7eaf781fac7f4.png)

与此同时(其实不必同时,早一点晚一点都无所谓),另一个用户可能正在一个不同的位置加入新的交易。它选择了 tip `z``y`。如此一来,它就在更大的范围上验证了已经验证过的同样交易,即 `a``k``m``n`,加上额外的一些没有在交易 `1` 验证路径上的交易(`l`, `o`, `r`, `t`, `v`, `y``z`)。

## 新的 Tangle 状态

![Imgur](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-e9c65514b54cbaf1.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Imgur](../images/127313-e9c65514b54cbaf1.png)

交易 `1``2` 的验证路径有重合之处,我们可以看到有一些交易仅被确认一次,有些交易被确认两次。被当前所有 tip 验证和确认的交易就被认为是完全确认。因此,交易 `n` 进入 tangle 更深一层,现在变成了绿色。从现在开始,随后所有连接到 `1` 与/或 `2` 或者它的孩子,将会保持再验证和再确认的交易状态。

Expand All @@ -45,15 +45,15 @@ IOTA 交易,确认和共识

## 确认级别

![Imgur](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-2404bdeafef81129.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![Imgur](../images/127313-2404bdeafef81129.png)

我加入了一些新的 tip 对上例进行了扩展。对于每个新的 tip,它的验证路径都被高亮了。通过颜色,你可以清楚地看到哪些交易被多少 tip 所验证,及其验证等级。

一个商家可能会根据自身情况设定个性化的确认/确定等级。如果交易速度比交易价值更重要(比如微支付或零价值支付),又或者发送方是一个朋友,一个人可能会以 75% 的确认等级接受交易。在 75% 的确定等级(3/4 tip)下,交易 `l`, `o`, 和 `t` 可能也会被确认。

## 传播延迟

![传播延迟](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-4187c6080889b8cb.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![传播延迟](../images/127313-4187c6080889b8cb.png)

理论上,由于更慢的 PoW 或者传播延迟,可能在稍后出现一笔慢速交易 `5`。鉴于我们已经知道了交易 `5`,交易 `n` 就不会再被所有的 tip 完全确认。但是,他们的确认确定性(confirmation certainty)仍然很高,有 4/5 tip 确认(实际上会有上千而不是 5 个 tip)。记住,所有一切都是为了一个高概率的确定性 -- 就像在区块链里面,区块的每次确认就是增加了确定性的概率。

Expand All @@ -63,23 +63,23 @@ IOTA 交易,确认和共识

## 双花

![双花](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-3d3318619b99e25b.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![双花](../images/127313-3d3318619b99e25b.png)

想象这样一种情况,一个用户在 tangle 的两个不同的地方加入了两笔冲突的交易(`w``y`)。对于随后的用户,在他们的验证路径上可能只有这些冲突交易里面的其中一笔(取决于他们的 tip 选择,和一些可能的传播时延)。比如,加入了交易 `1``2` 的用户就不会看到冲突,并会确认他们所选的 tip。因此,双花就得到了第一次确认。但是,迟早必然会发生的是,这两笔冲突的交易会出现在一笔交易的验证路径上。比如,交易 5 就会看到冲突,继而不会确认选出的 tip。相反,为了确保它自身会是一笔有效的交易,它会重新选择 tip 直到找到不冲突的交易。

依赖于 tip 的选择和 tangle 的推进,在冲突变得逐渐清晰之前,可能会有更多的用户在 `w``y` 后面附加交易。取决于用户在哪里附加最多新的交易,`w` 或者 `y` 都会在某个点确认,但是其他会被丢弃。被丢弃交易(因为它们看不到即将到来的冲突)后面的所有交易也会被丢弃。但是,这些交易并不会丢失,而是可能被任何人(但最可能是交易接收方)接受,并为了新的确认机会再次附加到 tangle。这时,PoW 就需要重新来过,但是并不需要从发送方发送新的签名了。

## 解决双花

![解决双花](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-e29a813637a274cf.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![解决双花](../images/127313-e29a813637a274cf.png)

上面已经说到,一个用户尝试将交易 `5` 与 tip `1``2` 相连。由于冲突,它重新进行选择 tip,并且决定连接到 tip `1``4`。另一个用户(也可能是同一个)选择 tip `2``3` 连接到交易 7。虽然出现了多个分支,但是由于 `w``y `的双花,只有一个能够存活。基于 tip 的随机选择(和交易的累积权重),这两个分支的其中一个会接收更多的的子交易(独立的,权重)直到 tangle 进入一个状态,在这个状态里就不可能再合法地附加任一片段。在上面的示例中,用户可能继续与交易 `5``6``8` 相连,但是不会连接到交易 `7`。因此,交易 `y``2``3``7` 将永远也不会成为一个完全确认的状态。

正如上面所说的,交易 `y``2``3``7` 可能被再次加入 tangle 。只要他们(仍然)是有效的,就会新的机会被确认。交易 `2``3``7` 可能然后被确认,但是交易 `y` 仍然无效。

## 离线 Tangle

![离线 tangle](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-6b87ca4b980e26ea.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![离线 tangle](../images/127313-6b87ca4b980e26ea.png)

tangle 能够让用户在离线的情况下,仍然能够继续构建交易,比如在公司内部的局域网,或者在断电的情况下与邻居继续交互。如此,依照协议规定创建交易,并相互连接。

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在数字时代之前,占有权指的是对那种权利的所有权。澳大利亚的护照账本,由各州政府持有的索引卡组成。当旅行人员向边境的工作人员出示护照时,工作人员就可以做出如下推测:这个旅行者被记录在一个远程账本上,并被获准旅行。当然,这种激进的边境管制,很容易遭受诈骗风险。

![一张收藏在澳大利亚国家档案馆的比利时护照,A435 1944 / 4 / 2579](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-9caab2339f93b153.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![一张收藏在澳大利亚国家档案馆的比利时护照,A435 1944 / 4 / 2579](../images/127313-9caab2339f93b153.png)

占有权**隐含(imply)**了所有权,但是所有权**不等于**占有权。如今,现代护照可以让当局直接确认所有权。基于其数字特征,航空公司和移民局可以通过访问国家护照数据中心,以此决定是否让这位旅客自由通行。

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账本出现在文字交流(written communication)的初期。在古代近东地区,**账本和书写**同时发展起来以记录生产,交易和债务。通过在泥板上刻下楔形文字,来详细记录口粮、税收、工人等详细信息,然后将其烧制保存。首个国际“社区”是以结构化的网络联盟形式组建的,[其运作方式和分布式账本(distributed ledger)非常相像](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3016649)

![一张由大英博物馆收藏的巴比伦尼亚楔形文字账本残片,58278-](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-5e6c75f6cea7fa92.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![一张由大英博物馆收藏的巴比伦尼亚楔形文字账本残片,58278-](../images/127313-5e6c75f6cea7fa92.png)

账本的第一次重大变化出现在十四世纪,当时的人们发明了复式记账法(double entry bookkeeping)。通过同时记录借贷数据,复式记账法需要在多个(分布式)账本里保存数据,同时考虑各账本之间的一致性(reconciliation)。

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**但是区块链同时也是反企业,反政府的**。区块链是一项制度级的技术,它是一种维护账本的新方式,[即协作性经济活动](https://www.academia.edu/33138299/Blockchains_and_the_economic_institutions_of_capitalism),这种方式与企业和政府完全不同。

![新资本主义经济制度](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-60b2cac4fb9fccfc.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![新资本主义经济制度](../images/127313-60b2cac4fb9fccfc.png)

区块链可以为企业所用,但是,区块链也可以将其取而代之。现在,一个合约和资本账本能够以去中心化和分布式的方式存在,这是一种前所未有的方式。无需政府支持,就可以维护和执行记载着身份、许可、特权以及授权的账本。

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在机械时间出现以前,人类活动受制于大自然的临时调控:公鸡黎明报晓,夜晚逐渐黑暗。正如经济史学家 Douglas W. Allen 提出的,问题在于可变因素:“测量时间的变量太过繁多……以至于无法在许多日常活动中找到借鉴意义。”

![十二世纪的 Jayrun 水钟](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-f4f76e554a475825.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![十二世纪的 Jayrun 水钟](../images/127313-f4f76e554a475825.png)

“在任何地方都能感受到因减少度量时间的可变因素所带来的影响”,Allen如此写道。机械时间开启了一个让人难以置信且几乎不可能出现的经济组织的全新分类。机械时间使贸易和交换得以同步,超越了地域的限制。它让生产和运输可以相互协调,让一天的安排得以实现,让劳动按照工时得到相应的报酬(让劳动者知道他们是否得到了合理的报酬)。雇主和雇员都能根据一种标准化的,独立的工具来验证契约被履行了。

Expand Down Expand Up @@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ Oliver Williamson 和 Ronald Coase(1991年诺贝尔经济学奖获得者)将

当储户们发现(或者只是单纯的想象)他们储蓄的银行可能无法兑现他们的存款,人们将争先恐后地取钱。

![电影《欢乐满人间》中的银行挤兑的场景(1964年)](http://upload-images.jianshu.io/upload_images/127313-db16fcaa52e1ecc9.png?imageMogr2/auto-orient/strip%7CimageView2/2/w/1240)
![电影《欢乐满人间》中的银行挤兑的场景(1964年)](../images/127313-db16fcaa52e1ecc9.png)

区块链可能的一种应用是,让储户和股东们持续监控银行的储备金和贷款,从而充分消除他们和银行管理层之间的信息不对称。

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